North America has some 300 species of freshwater clams and mussels.

His name was Hap Davis, gardener, woodsman, hunter, fisherman, teller of tall tales. I heard a neighbor of his say one day that the only way to ever catch a fish bigger than Hap was to tell your story last. He had a huge, half-way-to-the-knees, low-slung dewlap belly, a cancerous bump in the corner of his nose, rolled his own cigarettes, and was almost always lying down taking a nap. Hap was also the father of my first serious girlfriend, Edie May.

That notwithstanding Hap and I did a lot of fishing and clamming together. We would troll for sea bass among the islands of Casco Bay in a small motorized canoe, and he couldn’t swim. Many times when the tide was out during daylight we’d be clamming, backbreaking work that produces a multitude of tiny cuts on your hand from shell fragments. When the tide was right, we’d see mussels but leave them alone. Inland we’d fish the rivers, the Royal a common one. There Hap would shuck freshwater mussels to use for bait and look for black pearls. Edie May and her mother, Florence (Brown) had quite a collection of them.

Florida Shiny Spike (Elliptio buckleyi)

Hap was the first person I ever saw eat a clam raw. Actually it was a quahog, a really big clam. But he never sampled or harvested the salt water mussels nor did he eat the freshwater mussels. Now days salt water mussels are gourmet fare. I used to walk over thousands of them in mounds when the tide was low. Freshwater mussels are edible, too, but preparation and cooking is required. Locally there are several species one can harvest for dinner.  There are some 300 native species in North America, seven west of the Continental Divide, none in Hawaii though the later has one invasive species, the Asian Clam, which is a mussel. Some 200 North American species are endangered or extinct, many of those surviving are protected.  Identify your local freshwater mussels and follow appropriate regulations. Make sure your identification is correct. Fresh water mussels are one of the most threatened groups of animals in North America. The given reason for the decline in their population is sedimentation caused by land use which means look for them in clean water not silty or polluted water. They can live to 200 years old, more than enough time for these filter feeders to collect some nasty chemicals in them.Regardless of where you harvest freshwater mussels they must be thoroughly cooked to kill of serious parasites. Handle them like contaminated chicken. Gather them only from pristine waters. Younger is better than older.

Paper Pondshell (Utterbackia imbecillis)

If you go collecting mussels in Florida remember the tune Suwannee River. North and west of that river are seven federally protected species; Gulf Moccasinshell, Ochlockonee Moccasinshell, Chipola Slabshell, Shinyrayed Pocketbook, Fat Threeridge, Oval Pigtoe, and Purple Bankclimber.  Don’t harvest them. The fines are substatial. Two mussels that were harvested in Florida up to a couple of years ago, the Choctaw Bean and the Tapered Pigtoe, are up for consideration this year to be protected.

South of the Suwannee six freshwater mussels are regulated in varying degrees. They are, when the article was written: The Florida Shiny Spike (Elliptio buckleyi) which must be 3-inches long. Bag limit is 20-half shells per day. The Paper Pondshell (Utterbackia imbecillis) must be 3.5 inches long, bag limit 20-half shells a day. (Isn’t that a great name, Utterbackia imbeciles? It’s also fairly common in North America.)

Asian “Clam” (Corbicula fluminea) the best of freshwater mussels.

There are no bag or possession limits for unprotected species which includes the forementioned Asian Clam (Corbicula fluminea) which must be 1.5 inches across. Three other species have no harvesting restrictions beyond size: The Atlantic Rangia (Rangia cuneata)  3 inches, the Carolina Marschclam (Polymesoda caroliniana) , 3.5 inches, and the Fingernail Clam (Pea Clam) (Musculium, Sphaerium or Pisidium) half-inch.

How do you collect freshwater mussels? Locally by hand. Specialized tools are not allowed. You will find them in shallow, sandy lake, river and stream bottoms, and shorelines usually half buried, head and foot end down. A bucket with a clear bottom or snorkeling is a common method of location. Never select mussels that are chipped, broken, or damaged in any way. Also never take one that is open. It’s probably dead already. If you plan on collecting some regulated freshwater mussels the easiest thing to do to make sure they are the right size is to go to a hardware store and buy a metal ring that has the inside diameter of the mussel you want to collect. As an example, for the Asian “Clam” the ring should be 1.5 inches across on the inside. If the mussel drops through, it’s too small. If it wedges or won’t go through, it’s legal. Or you can make one by drilling a 1.5 inch hole in a small piece of wood or cutting off a small ring of PVC pipe with a 1.5 inch inside diameter.

Tiny Fingernail Calm

The Fingernail or Pea Clam is a half-inch or smaller in length. They’re creamy grey on the inside, light brown on the outside. If your collecting in the coastal fresh/brackish waters of Tampa Bay look for the Atlantic Rangia (bluish white interior) and the Carolina Marshclam (white and purple interior). Both have yellow to brown exteriors.  Limpkins, by the way, eat freshwater clams and Apple Snails so look for Limpkins. To learn more about Apple Snails, click here.   Don’t try this but in the Philippines small freshwater clams (Tulya) are tossed in garlic, salt and chili and allowed to die and semi-dry in the sun. Then they are eaten for a snack.

Tulya, Corbicula manilensis

In fact, the Tulya mentioned above and pictured left. is Corbicula manilensis, is closely related to Corbicular fluminea, the Asiatic Clam  that is invasive in the Unites States and the tastiest of the freshwater mussels on this continent. The Asiatic clam was reported in Washington state in 1938 though it might have been introduced in the 1920 as food by Chinese populations. Since then it has spread across a significant portion of the United States, particularly the south, Midwest, and Mid-Atlantic states. That is good news and bad news. Bad that it is invasive but good in that there’s at least one freshwater mussel worth the effort of collecting, and, since it is an invasive species not likely to be protected any time soon. It also lives only about three years so it’s likely to be low on chemical contaminants. Of all of mussel in this article the Asian Clam is the closest to common table fare. It can grow to around two inches, has a ridged shell, is purplish inside and yellow to brown on the outside.

Distribution of the Asian Clam

I recently saw some “Asian Clams” on an island in Lake Maitland in Maitland Florida. Most of the clams were small, half-inch across but were all around the island which is build on sand. While Lake Maitland is connected to several other small lakes in the area it’s about as far as possible from Washington State as possible. Yet over seven or eight decades the non-native mussel managed to make its way across country. Mussels have a larval stage in which they adhere to fish gills. Move the fish you move the mussel. As birds carry fish, and drop them, perhaps that is how the mussel spread across the nation, or at least river to river then to lakes.

Asian clams prefer quiet fresh water and sandy bottoms. But they can also grow in brackish water and on silty bottoms. They like sunlit warm areas near shore avoiding cold deep water with a low oxygen content. because of how they are built usually one-third of the mussels is always sticking out of the bottom of the sand or silt. They can withstand freezing conditions but it slows down their reproduction.

Atlantic Rangia (Rangia cuneata)

In theory all mussels are edible — Native Americans ate a lot of them — but taste and texture can be challenging, particularly in ribbed mussels. Mussels have to be cleaned thoroughly before cooking and always check for pollution possibilities. Mussels collected in the Everglades have mercury and pesticide contamination.

Carolina Marschclam, Polymesoda caroliniana

Mussels in Round Lake near Tampa have high levels of radiation caused by water management practices. Best leave those alone, too. The foot is the best part of the mussel but chewy because unlike salt water version most freshwater mussels move around. They can be grilled, steamed, baked or fried. Boiling in salted water improves the flavor and texture. Then further cooking in a sauce or the like, such as white wine and butter, makes them palatable. To improve the taste and help remove any grit keep them in a bucket with fresh, clean water.  Change the water twice a day for a couple of days. You can also add corn meal to the water. (A better way is to move the clams to new water each time rather than disturbing the dirty old water.)  Incidentally, a fishing license is not needed in Florida to harvest mussels, clams, crawdads or frogs for personal use.

Green mussels, Perna viridis

As for salt-water the Green Mussel which recently invaded Florida’s coastal marine waters, while it is edible in its native environment the state has not yet decided if it is fit for human consumption here because of either pollution or algal blooms. Zebra Mussels, from Europe and scourge of the Great Lakes, are not reported in Florida but some think it is only a matter of time. While that mussel is dreaded commercial species, however,  are being raised in Florida, particularly Brevard County in Indian River Lagoon.

And if you are wondering what are the difference between a clam and a mussel all fresh water bivalves are mussels, even though some of them are called clams, like the “Asian Clam.” Salt water clams have wide, circular, light colored shells and live in the sand or mud. Salt water mussels have long, oval shells that are usually dark and live attached (from the back of the shell) to projections in the water such as  rocks, boats, docks.  Freshwater mussels attach to things when young but then move around, albeit not much. They can also be found in sand.

Last I knew it was illegal to harvest any freshwater clams or mussels in Oregon, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and Michigan. North Carolina restricts harvesting to man-made bodies of water. One would think they would allow harvesting of the highly invasive Zebra Clam. Idaho has no regulations on bivalves as of this writing. And in Florida as mentioned the “Asian Clam” has a size limit, which is odd for an invasive species.

There are some 50 species of freshwater clams/mussels in Australia. One that the Aboriginals ate a lot of is the Floodplain Mussel, Velesunio ambiguous. Lastly, here’s a link to a Google Book on Edible Mollusks of Great Britain and Ireland (with recipes) printed in 1867.

If you are inclined to harvest salt water mussels first check with local authorities regarding not only local regulations but to avoid contaminated shorelines or red tide issues. One you’ve done that go to the tidal area at low tide. Mussels will usually be found attached to rocks or other items. You should have a tool like a small crowbar to free them. Clean them thoroughly externally before cooking, which is usually steaming or boiling. As with freshwater mussels, don’t use and damaged mussels or ones that are open before cooking. While Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis) can be harvest any time of the year (if sanitary conditions are acceptable) they taste best when collected in the spring. NOTE: It is recommended that you do not eat any bivalves locally during the warmer months that do not end with an “R.”

Salt water Blue Mussels, Casco Bay, Maine

Litchi Tomato

Foraging is a treasure hunt because with perhaps 6,000 edible species in North America there is always a surprise now and then such as the Litchi Tomato.

The husk (calyx) shrinks as the fruit matures

Some people call it a wild tomato, others say it’s naturalized or an escaped crop. Some refer to it as an “heirloom.” Common names include Sticky Nightshade (not at all original)  Morelle de Balbis, and Fire & Ice Plant (I have no idea why.)  It can be found not only in gardens but in the wild around the world. A native of South America, particularly Paraguay, it’s a hardy nightshade that reseeds itself and gets along quite nicely without man’s attention. So even though you may cultivate it, the wandering botanical often strikes out on its own.

Young husk (calyx) with typical yellow/orange thorns.

In North America its distribution is rather unconventional. Going around the rim states of the US it is found from Oregon south and east to West Virginia excluding New Mexico. Then it goes to the mid-Atlantic states skipping Maryland. It is also recorded in Massachusetts and Ontario. You will have to look at specific state maps to identify the counties the Litchi Tomato has been found it. A tough member of a fragile family it can take a light frost even temperatures down to 25F. In warmer climes it overwinters (and gets more spiny!) A bushy indeterminate, it does, however, need more than one plant to cross pollinated.

Blossoms can be white, light blue or mauve.

In its native South America the Litchi Tomato has been used in local dishes since before written records. And most unusual for this genus it has spines yet is still edible. Usually plants in this genus with spines are very toxic if not deadly. This is also why, particularly here in the southern United States, one must not mistake the Horsenettle — Solanum carolinense –for the Litchi Tomato. The results could be much illness if not death. Interestingly, since the Litchi Tomato does have spines (technically prickles*) it has also been use as a hedge around gardens, to keep animals out. It’s also a trap crop for potato cyst nematodes and has been in cultivation in Europe since the 1700s. The plant, however, is banned in South Africa. In Australia it is found in New South Wales, Queensland, Western Victoria and possibly Victoria.

The fruit, red when ripe, is one-half to inch, yellow inside with many seeds.

The fruit develops in a husk (calyx) that is totally covered with spines (unlike the Horsenettle which has spines but no husk.) Then the husk, which is slightly bullet shape, folds back to reveal a bright red cherry-tomato like fruit. Interior flesh is yellow and seeds resemble cherry tomato seeds. Its texture is similar to a raspberry and the taste is tart like a sour cherry. The fruit is ripe when it can be removed easily. If it resists it is not ready to eat.

In small amounts the dried roots, with that basal part of the stem, were used as a diuretic to treat kidney issues and high blood pressure. The roots were also chewed to induce abortions. See Herb Blurb below.

Unripe fruit are slightly bullet shaped

As for the botanical name this is going to be a little confusing.  Part of its name is easy and part difficult. Solanum (so-LAY-num) is the easy part and means sun. Sisymbriifolium ( sis-sim-bree-ee-FOL-lee-um) is more convoluted.  Sisymbrium is from the Greek sisumbrion (??????????) and means sweet-smelling plant. It’s what Greeks called the bergamot mint. A Tumbleweed Mustard, which is not sweet smelling at all, was named Sisymbrium because the mustard leaves looked similar to the bergamot’s leaves. The Litchi Tomato’s leaves look similar to the Tumbleweed Mustard so it was called Sisymbriifolium, meaning leaves that look like the mustard that look like the bergamot … And botanists think they really make it clear and easy for us mere foraging mortals.

Other common names include: Alco-Chileo (Spanish), arrabenta cavalo, dense-thorn bitter apple (English), doringtamatie (Afrikaans-South Africa), espina colorada (Spanish), fire and ice plant (English), jeweelie (Argentina), joão bravo, jua das queimadas (Portuguese), jua de roca (Portuguese), klebriger nachtschatten (German), litchi tomato (English), liuskakoiso (English), manacader, morelle de balbis (French), mullaca espinudo, ocote mullaca (Spanish), pilkalapis baklazanas (Lithuanian), puca-puca (Spanish), raukenblatt-nachtschatten (Austria), red buffalo-burr (British Isles), revienta caballo (Spanish), sticky nightshade (English-United States, United Kingdom), tomatillo (Spanish), tutia (Spanish), tutia o Espina Colorada, uvilla, viscid nightshade (English-United States, Australia), wild tomato (English), wildetamatie (Afrikaans-South Africa.)

World wide, it is reported in: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Congo Republic, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, North and South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Swaziland, Sweden, Taiwan, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States.

*Prickles are outgrowths of the epidermis and not modified branches, which are spines.

 Green Deane’s ITEMIZED Plant Profile: Litchi Tomato

IDENTIFICATION: Solanum sisymbriifolium is an annual or perennial erect to about a yard to one meter in height. The stem and branches are sticky, hairy, and armed with flat, yellow-orange spines up to half inch (15mm) in length. The oval to lance shaped thorny leaves have stems a half inch to two inches long (1-6cm) and are hairy above and below with stellate and glandular hairs. The leaves are pinnately divided into four to six coarse lobes and may be up to 15 inches long (40cm) and half as wide. Flowers emerge from the foliage and are internodal, unbranched racemes composed of one to ten perfect (staminate) flowers. The five-parted flowers are white, light blue, or mauve, about an inch (3cm) in diameter, and have a hairy calyx a quarter of an inch (5-6 mm) long. They smell like fish. The fruit is a red, succulent, globular berry from a half inch to an inch (12-20 mm) in diameter with pale yellow seeds.

TIME OF YEAR: Similar to tomatoes depending on the climate.

ENVIRONMENT: Similar to a tomato, rich soil, ample sun, moderate, steady watering. Treat them like a tomato except set them out a bit later when its warmer. In exchange they fruit a little longer. The Litchi Tomato is found along roadsides, waste places, landfills, and disturbed fields. A good place to look in farming country in around manure piles or compost bins. In Australia it likes eucalyptic woodlands

METHOD OF USE:  Like tomatoes. A healthy plant will produce about a quart of fruit each. Some folks like to put them thought a sieve to remove the seeds. From a culinary point of view they respond well to some sweetness which then gives them a sweet and sour appeal. Surprisingly I could not find the plant mentioned in Cornucopia II, which is kind of the forager’s Bible for edible plants around the world.

Seed source:  $3 at Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds.

 Hot and Spicy Litchi Tomato Chutney: Recipe from  Mother Earth News

Four cups green tomatoes, sliced into small shreds, measure after slicing; ? 2 1?2 cups whole Litchi tomatoes, hulls removed; ? 6 dates, seeded and coarsely chopped; ?4 garlic cloves, each sliced into 4 pieces ?lengthwise; ?zest of 2 limes; ?1 tbsp or more hot pepper, finely minced; ?1/2 cup white vinegar; ?2 tsp mustard seed, crushed to meal-like consistency; ?1 tsp fennel seed, preferably Indian Lucknow fennel; ?1/2 tsp ground cinnamon; ?1 tsp cumin seed?; 1 cup green raisins; ?1 cup chopped mango or under-ripe peach; ?1 cup slivered almonds; ?2 1?2 cups honey or 3 cups sugar.
Combine all ingredients in a deep pan and cook over medium-high heat for 20 minutes, or until thick. Remove from the heat and lift out the fruit mixture with a slotted spoon and put it into hot, sanitized preserve jars standing in hot water. Reduce the remaining syrup over high heat until thick like honey, and then pour this over the hot fruit and seal. Allow to mellow two weeks before using. Yields approximately four 12-ounce jars.

Herb Blurb

J Ethnopharmacol. 2000 Jun;70(3):301-7.
Isolation of hypotensive compounds from Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.
lbarrola DA, Hellión-lbarrola MC, Montalbetti Y, Heinichen O, Alvarenga N, Figueredo A, Ferro EA.
Source
Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, National University of Asuncion, PO Box 1055, Asuncion, Paraguay.
Abstract
The crude hydroalcoholic root extract (CRE) of Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. has formerly been shown to have hypotensive activity both in normo-and hypertensive rats. Hypotensive activity-guided fractionation of the CRE was performed in anaesthetized normotensive rats, which led to the isolation of the active principles. The intravenous (i.v.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) values of the CRE in mice were found to be, respectively, 343 and 451 mg/kg, and no lethal effect was caused by doses up to 5.0 g/kg when administered by oral route. Depression of locomotion, increase of breathing rate and piloerection was observed in a general behavior test with doses up to 200 mg/kg i.p., and 1000 mg/kg p.o., respectively. Increase in the gastrointestinal transit was found using 0.1 g/kg, whereas at doses of 0.5 and 1 g/kg, no significant activity was observed in comparison with the control mice. Hexanic and butanolic fractions induced a remarkable hypotension in anaesthetized normotensive rats in doses of 1, 5, 7.5 and 10 mg/kg i. v. Two compounds isolated from the butanolic fraction induced a significant decrease of the blood pressure, HR, amplitude of the ECG and breathing rate when injected in a dose of 1 mg/kg i.v; and both systofic and diastolic, blood pressures were affected in a proportional mode. The hypotensive effect of the two compounds were not influenced by pretreatment with atropine and propranolol; and the pressor response to noradrenaline was not affected by any of them which suggests that neither a direct muscarinic activity, beta-adrenoceptor activation nor decrease of sympathetic vascular tone (sympatholitic activity) are probably involved in the mechanism of hypotension. The present study shows that the CRE of S. sisymbriifolium contains at least two hypotensive compounds whose characterization is under way.
PMID:
10837991
[PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]

Hypotensive effect of crude root extract of Solanum sisymbriifolium (Solanaceae) in normo- and hypertensive rats.

PMID:

8941862

[PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]

 

Classic simple Greek Meal of “horta”

Dear Reader: I started this list years ago and have never had the time to finish it, that is, make separate entries with photos. But it has good information so I am going to post the work thus far:

Below is a complete ethnobotanical survey of wild plants people eat on Cyprus, or at least the Greek portion of the island. Many of these are also found in other countries around the world.

Greeks have a long history of foraging. A plate of cooked greens dressed with olive oil and lemon and accompanied with heavy bread is considered a proper meal. Another problem is an extreme proliferation of common names. Not only can different villages have different names for the same plant but different families within a village can have different names for the same plant, and have been using those different names for generations. Put three Greeks in a room and you have seven opinions. Perhaps no where was the binomial naming system more needed for plants than among those who speak Greek. I have extracted a list of the edibles mentioned in the study which follows.

Allium neapolitanum, Ammi majus, Apium nodiflorum, Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus stipularis, Capparis spinosa, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps, Centaurea hyalolepis, Ceratonia siliqua, Cichorium intybus, Crataegus azarolus, Crataegus monogyna, Crithmum maritimum, Cynara cardunculus, Cynara cornigera, Cynara scolymus, Echinops spinosissimus, Eruca sativa, Eryngium creticum, Eryngium glomeratum, Ficus carica, Foeniculum vulgare, Gundelia turnefortii, Laurus nobilis, Limonium sinuatum, Malva parviflora, Mentha pulegium, Mentha spicata, Muscari comosum, Myrtus communis, Nasturtium officinale, Notobasis syriaca, Onopordum bracteatum, Onopordum cyprium, Origanum dubium, Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, Portulaca oleracea, Pistacia lentiscus, Pyrus syriaca, Rosmarinus officinalis, Scolymus hispanicus, Scolymus maculatus,  Silene vulgaris, Silybum marianum, Sinapis alba, Sinapis arvensis, Sonchus oleraceus, Taraxacum cyprium, Taraxacum hellenicum, Thymus capitatus,  Ziziphus lotus

Allium neapolitanum

Allium neapolitanum is also called the Naples Garlic, Daffodil Garlic, False Garlic, Flowering Onion, Naples Onion, Guernsey Star-of-Bethlehem, Neapolitan Garlic, Star, White Garlic, and the Wood Garlic. Native to the area it is considered an invasive species in California, Texas, Louisiana and Florida. It usually grows one to 1.5 feet high and has a large head of flowers.

Ammi majus

Ammi majus, has edible leaves and is used in salads. It is native to the Nile River basin and is also called Bishop’s Flower, Bishop’s Weed, False Bishop’s wWed, Bullwort, Greater Ammi, Lady’s Lace, Queen Anne’s Lace (dont’ donfuse with a Daucus carota) and Laceflower.

Apium nodiflorum

Apium nodiflorum, also called Helosciadium nodiflorum and Fool’s-water-cress is a flowering plant found in ditches or streams in western Europe. It’s a low-growing perennial with five-petaled blossoms and pinnate leaves that some think resembles watercress. It is not toxic but is easily confused with the Lesser Water Parsnip, Berula eracta, which is toxic.

Asparagus acutifolius

  Asparagus acutifolius and Asparagus stipularis, young leaves and shoots are cut, fried then mixed with eggs in an omelette.  The stems have much-branched feathery foliage which are actually needle-like modified stems. Flowers are bell-shaped in small clusters, greenish-white to yellowish, flowering in August through September, often after storms. It’s green berries are not edible.

Capparis spinosa

Capparis spinosa is quite familiar as its punget fruit are capers. Both the blossom  and the berry is used, the latter often pickled. Over the last 40 years the caper bush has been planted in other areas of Europe to increase commercial productions. The caper bush is a rupicolous species. Got to admit, I had to look that one up. It means growing on rocks quite understandable as many areas of the Mediterranean area are nothing but rock.

Capsella-bursa pastoris

Capsella bursa-pastoris grows not only on Cyprus but most of the rest of the world as well. Better know as Shepher’s Purse because of the seed shape it can be found in such places as Ocala, Florida where it is more common than its close cousin, Poor Man’s Pepper Grass. The entire plant is edible, the seeds as a pepper substitute, the leaves as a green, even the root has a ginger-like pepper flavor. Usually a cool-weather annual, it can grow nearly year round in some areas. Locally it shows up about Christmas and is gone by St. Patrick’s Day.

Carduus argentatus

 Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, or the Silver Thistle has laternating leaves and a basil roset with toothed or serrated leave and spines. Flowers are pink in April through May in distrubed habitats. It is found i Mediterranean woodlands, shrublamds, semi-steppe shrublands, desert and mountains. It is one of the flowers tentatively identified on the Shroud of Turin.

An Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible Plants of
Paphos and Larnaca countrside of Cyprus

 Athena Della, Demetra Paraskeva-Hadjichambi and Andreas Ch Hadjichambis

Corresponding author: Demetra Paraskeva-Hadjichambi d.chadjihambi@cytanet.com.cy

Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 22016, 1516 Nicosia, Cyprus

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:34 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-34

The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/34

Published: 4 September 2006

Abstract

An ethnobotanical survey of wild edible plants of Cyprus was carried out in two sites. Paphos vine zone and Larnaca mixed farming zone. These are among the areas in Cyprus whose inhabitants subsisted primarily on pastoralism and agriculture and therefore still preserve the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants.

The information was collected for three-year period, in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Project. Four hundred and thirteen interviews have been administered to 89 informants of various ages and background categories in 29 villages of Paphos site, and 8 in Larnaca site. A total of 78 species were recorded. Ethnographic data related to vernacular names, traditional tools and recipes have also been recorded. A comparison of the data collected from the two sites is undertaken. During this ethnobotanical research it was verified that wild edibles play an important role in Cyprus in rural people, however, it was realized that the transmission of folk uses of plants decreased in the last generations. The research of ethnobotany should be extended to other areas of Cyprus in order not only to preserve the traditional knowledge related to plants but to make it available to future generations as well.

Background

Even though covering only 9251 square kilometres, Cyprus is a country diverse in geography, climate, flora and fauna and rich in history and culture. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean with a climate of wet, changeable winter and hot dry summers, separated by short spring and autumn seasons of rapidly changing weather. The vegetation of Cyprus is formed by typical Mediterranean types: the coniferous forest, the maquis, the garigue and the batha vegetation, whilst more localized communities occur around salt marshes, sand dunes, stone walls and mountain streams [1–4].

In Cyprus, about 2000 taxa were recorded as native or naturalized. From the native taxa, 143 were recorded as endemics [5–8]. References to the Cyprus flora and in particular to plants of economic importance go back as far as Homer. Cyprus’ plants are mentioned in the works of ancient authors such as Theophrast, Dioscourides and Pliny. Among Cyprus natural vegetation, a number of aromatic, medicinal and other useful plants are being exploited in their wild form [9].

The Cyprus diverse topography has permitted the survival of traditional knowledge related to vegetable resources used by locals as food. Even though, the consumption of plants gathered from the wild represented an important part of human nutrition in Cyprus, however, there are few ethnobotanical studies focused on wild edibles [10–13].

The present research was performed in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Ethnobotanical Project (Contract Number ICA3–2002–10023, 2003–2006). The perspectives of this research project were to record ethnobotanical knowledge related to traditional plant uses of wild and neglected cultivated plants for food, medicine, textiles, dyeing, handicrafts, and basketry, as well as to identify and evaluate the socio-economic and anthropological context in which these plants have been gathered and processed.

As a part of this broad study, wild food plants have been recorded in Cyprus and therefore the aim of this paper, is to present and analyze the wild food data gathered in the study areas of Cyprus during the years 2003–2005.

Methodology

Location and study area

Within Cyprus, two areas of study have been selected for this research project, according to the Agro-economic zones of Cyprus [14]. The decision was made in order to fulfil the criteria set by the EU-RUBIA Consortium for rural areas administratively, geographically and ecologically homogeneous with similar socio-economic context (Figure 1).

In both sites man transformed the natural landscape, in order to create opportunities for agriculture and stock raising. The floral diversity of the territories (especially in Paphos area) and the different ways in which their inhabitants have exploited the natural resources available have engendered a rich popular knowledge of the use of plants. Not ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in these regions until now.

Site one belongs to the 4^th phytogeographical zone of Cyprus, which has mostly cultivated or heavily grazed land in the North and numerous barren, eroded chalk or limestone hills in the South [3]. Is a part of Larnaca mixed farming zone and is an area of 155 km² consisting of 8 relatively big villages: Athienou, Avdhellero, Kellia, Livadhia, Petrophani, Pyla, Troulli, Voroklini, with in total 9545 inhabitants all of whom are autochthonous Greek-Cypriots, Greek speaking with Cypriot dialect. Cereals are the main crops planted, however the low irrigation of the area and the limited profitability of cereals compelled the farmers to concentrate mostly to livestock production.

Site two belongs to the 1^st phytogeographical zone of Cyprus, which is an area heterogeneous topographically, geologically and floristically, with much natural vegetation. It is mostly hilly, with deep narrow gorges, limestone or sandstone and with interesting areas of serpentine [3]. Site two is a part of the Paphos vine zone and is an area of 375 km² comprising 29 small villages: Axylou, Amargeti, Agios Demetrianos, Dhrinia, Dhrousia, Eledhio, Inia, Kallepia, Kannaviou, Kathikas, Kato Akourdhalia, Kelokedara, Pano Arodes, Panayia, Choulou, Kritou Marottou, Lemba, Letymbou, Melemiou, Miliou, Pano Akourdhalia, Phiti, Polemi, Psathi, Stroumbi, Theletra, Tsada, Yiolou, Pitagrou, with 9540 inhabitants all of whom are autochthonous Greek-Cypriots, Greek speaking with Cypriot dialect and Paphian idiom. Even though the region extends over a large area with many villages, there is a small number of inhabitants in each village and it is considered the less densely populated region of the country. The major crop planted is the grape vine followed by cereals [14]. Part of the western site of this territory has been suggested for inclusion in the Akamas Natura 2000 site.

These two sites are among the few areas in Cyprus whose inhabitants subsisted primarily on pastoralism and agriculture and therefore the older people of these areas still preserve the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants. The intensity of farming and the unavailability of off-farm job opportunities were closely related to the population engaged in agriculture. Today, most of the young people of both sites work in Paphos or Larnaca towns, leaving the agricultural and pastoral activities to be carried out by the middle-aged and older generations.

The interest of the present study was focused on wild food botanicals in the two sites. Attempts have been made to correlate and compare the plants recorded between the two sites as well as with other research work carried out in Cyprus and abroad.

A further aim of this research was to develop an ethnobotanical framework which could be the basis for further studies.

Methods

The present research was performed in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Ethnobotanical Project. The aim of this research project was the recording of ethnographical field data in order to develop a model for the re-evaluation of tools and technologies related to traditional uses of wild and neglected cultivated plants for food, medicine, textiles, dyeing, handicrafts, and basketry, as well as to identify and evaluate the socio-economic and anthropological context in which these plants have been gathered and processed. Eight study areas from the following countries were participated: Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Holland, Italy, Morocco and Spain.

The field methodological framework chosen for this research was that used in ethnobiology [15–17]. Field research was conducted by collecting ethnobotanical information during structured and semi-structured interviews with knowledgeable people native in each site territory. For each plant recorded one questionnaire was filled. Even though a structured questionnaire had to be filled direct questions were avoided. The basic information needed was taken during the conversation. Whenever possible the conversation was recorded on cassettes.

No special selection criteria were used in the choice of the informants because one of the aims of this work was to assess the breadth of popular heritage in the field of wild edible plants, knowledge which is widespread among locals. However, most of the interviewees were more than 60 years old, and belong mainly to families which have a strong connection with traditional agricultural activities.

Plant data and their related information were entered into a data base. The data acquired for each plant comprise the common local name, its uses, the part of the plant used and its preparation and administration processes. The way plants were collected, preserved, stored, prepared and used and the most relevant processes were photographed and video recorded.

Most of the mentioned plants were recognised by the villagers in-situ during short field walks and collected for scientific identification. Nomenclature followed mainly the Flora of Cyprus [3,4] and in some cases the Flora Europaea [18]. Herbarium specimens of most of the taxa cited were prepared and deposited in the National herbarium of Cyprus at the Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia. Seed samples were also collected in the appropriate season for the most representative wild plants and deposited in the Cyprus National Genebank, at the Agricultural Research Institute.

Results/discussion

Four hundred and two interviews have been administered to 89 informants, of which 38 (43%) were women and 51 (57%) were men. Informants were between the ages of 48–82, with the average age of 66.

A total of 78 plants have been recorded. All these species are native and are gathered from the wild whilst 11 of them are cultivated as well (Ceratonia siliqua, Eruca sativa, Mentha spicata, Origanum dubium, Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, Ficus carica, Myrtus communis, Portulaca oleracea, Crataegus azarolus). Comparing the plants recorded in the two sites it can be seen that 40 plants are common in both sites, 5 of the edible plants are used exclusively in Larnaca site and 33 plants are used exclusively in Paphos site. Within the two sites the dependency of rural people on agriculture was much greater in the Paphos vine zone than in Larnaca site. According to studies of 1983 [14] in Paphos site 71% of rural people were gainfully employed in agriculture and 29% in other occupation whilst in Larnaca site 43% of people employed in agriculture and 57% in other occupation. The closer relation of the indigenous people with their land probably resulted to the higher degree of usage of the natural plant resources in Paphos site. Additionally, many villages in Paphos site are near or within the Akamas Nature Reserve, a big area with many natural habitats and rich vegetation and therefore many of the wild edibles are gathered from the undisturbed shrublands of the area. Furthermore, the middle-aged generation of the Paphos vine zone, even though working in the town, they have relation with the countryside, still gaining profits from their grapes, and therefore still preserve some of the TK of their parents.

The survey of wild edible plants of Paphos and Larnaca countryside is the first study in Cyprus which has followed ethnobotanical methodology, recording not only a species list but ways of gathering, storage, preservation, preparation processes, common and traditional recipes and therefore the comparison of our data with previous studies is not possible. However, an attempt was made in order to compare only the species list of wild edibles recorded in our two study areas with the list of edible wild plants of the Cyprus Flora published in 2000 which enlisted 57 edible species from all around the island [13]. From the comparison was revealed that 47 plants were recorded in both species lists, 29 wild edibles were reported for the first time in our ethnobotanical study and 10 species were recorded only in Savvides’ list and not in ours.

All the plants recorded are presented in Table 1 with the indication of scientific name, vernacular name, family, plant part used, type of preparation, site recorded, number of records and herbarium specimen number.

Most used plants

The recorded plants belong to 31 different families. Asteraceae was with difference the most frequently encountered botanical family with 20 taxa, whilst Apiaceae and Brassicaceae follow with seven taxa, Lamiaceae with six and Boraginaceae is represented by four taxa. The other 26 families have less representation between one to three taxa each. Most of them are big families with many representatives in the Mediterranean region, some of which are very common plants. The data of this study confirm that people tend to use preferably the plants that are easily available to them excluding of course, those that are toxic or noxious. As was affirmed by other publications as well [19–22], the more common a plant (family or species) is in an area, the greater is the probability of its popular use. As for the most known and used species 13 of them were cited 10 times or more. The food utilization of Centaurea hyalolepis, has been reported by 18 informants, followed by Silene vulgaris (17 citations), Capparis spinosa (16 citations), Thymus capitatus (16 citations), Asparagus acutifolius (15 citations), Malva parviflora (14 citations), Scolymus hispanicus (13 citations), Eryngium creticum (12 citations), Foeniculum vulgare (11 citations), Onopordum cyprium, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica and Portulaca oleracea with 10 citations each. A high number of plants (49 out of 78) have been recorded by at least three independent informants, so that they follow the reliability criterion of Le Grand and Wondergem [23] and would be particularly interesting in view of further studies [22].

At this point it should be noted that 40 of the edible plants recorded are used exclusively for food. Some other plants have two or more uses and they appear in different categories as well. As can be seen in figure 2, 37 (30+4+3) plants have been recorded to be used for food as well as for medicine.

This overlap indicates the close relationship between health and food. A good example to this is Origanum dubium. The origan, locally called “rigani”, is one of the most commonly edible plants used and many traditional recipes were recorded for its use as a condiment such as in recipes of roasted meat, as a scent in kebab, and is added as a scent in a traditional recipe, called “tsamarella” which is made from salted goat meat. It is also considered one of the most commonly used medicinal with about six different recipes, against flu, cold, as antipyretic, anti-stress, for stomach-ache and good digestion. These plants (Origanum dubium, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, among others) are often used in folk medicine as digestive, so it may be that their presence in these often heavy dishes is not only a culinary but medicinal, to increase the digestibility of the cooked food [19]. Overlapping between foods and medicines is quite well known in traditional societies [24–26] and represents an often neglected field in ethnopharmaceutical research.

Plant supply/availability throughout a year

Most of the plants are collected in wild populations nearby the places where the informants live. Occasionally there is a small-scale cultivation in their home gardens (Origanum dubium, Myrtus communis, Crataegus azarolus). Some plants which were very much appreciated and frequently consumed in the past are now considered as weeds and even though have been mentioned they are only rarely eaten; in the territories studied this is the case of Sinapis alba and Sinapis arvensis. Sinapis spp. are still eaten in other areas of Cyprus [13].

Among all the edibles, four endemic species of Cyprus were recorded. The presence of endemic species illustrates the fact that the informants have a deep knowledge of their environment, since the three of them are not very abundant and can be found only in certain areas. For example, the endemic subspecies Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica and Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps are used only from the inhabitants of specific villages in Paphos area whilst the endemic Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, which is used like common oregano, can be found only in a shrubland area of the Akamas National Park. The endemic species Onopordum cyprium, is used both in Paphos and Larnaca site and is a very common plant (Figures 6 and 7).

One of the favourite edibles of the recent past, Gundelia tournefortii, known by locals in Paphos area as “silifa”, is under threat since it has become rare and it can not easily be found. This plant has been included in the Red data book of Cyprus Flora as Endangered because its populations have been eliminated [27].

Most wild species are gathered from waste and uncultivated land (48%) or from shrubland (17%) and by the roadside (12%). Eight percent (8%) of wild edibles are grown within or around the cultivations and therefore can be collected from the cultivated land of grape vines in Paphos and Cereals in Larnaca,

In the local Cyprus cuisine, greens and wild plants in general, have an important role. According to this study during winter, it is possible to use 49 wild plants, and this number can increase to 56 during spring. The number then decreases and in May many edible greens have bloomed and the leaves have become tough, leaving only about 16 still edible. During summer some fruits of wild trees are edible.

From these plants only 15 can be purchased throughout a year from local markets and stores (Capparis spinosa, Ceratonia siliqua, Cynara cornigera, Eruca sativa, Mentha spicata, Origanum dubium, Rosmarinus officinalis, Pistacia lentiscus, Silene vulgaris, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, Ficus carica, Myrtus communis, Portulaca oleracea, Crataegus azarolus). These plants are partly collected from the wild and partly coming from small scale cultivation. Some of them are used as a condiment, some others are consumed as greens in salads or they are used for the preparation of cooked recipes. The other 66 taxa people should gather only from the wild by themselves (Figure 3).

As regards the tools used for gathering, 44% of the plants are gathered simply by hand while 37 % are gathered by a knife. Other tools such as a big knife (9%), a traditional big curved knife called “skylloua” (7%) and scissors (3%) are also used.

4.3 Plant parts

Within the edible plants, leaves (29%) and stems (25%) are the plant parts most widely used. Fruits and aerial part follow with 16% and 15% respectively (Figure 4).

Among the recorded plants thistles are very popular as wild edibles of Cyprus. The young stems of 16 wild plants are used. Eight of them are used in both sites (Centaurea hyalolepis, Scolymus hispanicus, Scolymus maculatus, Onopordum cyprium, Eryngium creticum, Cynara scolymus, Echinops spinosissimus, Notobasis syriaca, while seven of them are used exclusively in Paphos site (Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps, Silybum marianum, Cynara cardunculus, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, Gundelia turnefortii, Onopordum bracteatum) and one of them is used exclusively in Larnaca site (Cynara cornigera). These plants can be gathered from January to March, and their young stems, cleaned of spines, are used in most cases boiled with legumes or fried.

Models of consumption

The edible plants are consumed in many different ways. Some of them need only the washing of the part of the plant to be eaten, and some others imply a more or less complex preparation process (Figure 5).

Raw

Many plants (26%) with edible leaves, roots or fruits are eaten raw. Many of them are used in salads. This is the case of Portulaca oleracea, Ammi majus, Apium nodiflorum, Taraxacum cyprium, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha pulegium which are usually dressed with oil, and vinegar or lemon. Some others like Sinapis alba, Sinapis arvensis, Taraxacum hellenicum, Cichorium intybus, Nasturtium officinale, Sonchus oleraceus, Allium neapolitanum are eaten fresh with olives, onions and bread. On the other hand, many edible fruits are directly consumed as desserts, in fresh form (Pyrus syriaca, Crataegus azarolus, Crataegus monogyna, Ziziphus lotus). The existence of Limonium sinuatum in this group is remarkable, because it is the first time that this plant is cited as a food plant in Cyprus [13] even though has been listed as an edible for the Mediterranean in Bodrum area of Turkey [29].

Cooked plants

A number of wild plants (59%) are eaten cooked. Most of them, 27 %, are eaten boiled, 17% are eaten boiled alone and 10% are eaten boiled with legumes, especially with broad beans. In both cases they are garnished with olive-oil and lemon. The most popular plants used as boiled are: Centaurea hyalolepis, Scolymus hispanicus, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Malva parviflora. However, some more elaborated preparations were recorded. Some plants are consumed fried (9%) and especially in an omelette. The young shoots of Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus stipularis and the young leaves of Silene vulgaris, which are the most typical examples in both sites studied, are cut, fried and mixed with the eggs to make the omelette. Asparagus acutifolius is prepared in the same way in some parts of Italy [28] the Iberian Peninsula [19] and in Bodrum area of Turkey [29].

A number of wild edibles (17%) is used in traditional recipes. It is worth mentioning that very popular among traditional recipes in Cyprus are home made pies, called in general “pittes”. Eleven plants are used for making traditional pies. First, dough is made from flour, water and salt and then it is used for making small pies. Some times the pies are filled with the boiled or fried leaves (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima, Papaver rhoeas, Silene vulgaris, Rumex pulcher) along with rice or “pourgouri” (like couscous) and spices. Some other plants are used as a scent in the pie (Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha spicata). In other cases fruits raw or preserved are used as the main filling of the pie (Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia terebinthus, Ficus carica). Pies are cooked in the oven. Wild plants can also be a basis for a soup, the most famous of which is the so-called “molochosoupa” (malva soup), made with Malva parviflora. Some plants are often cooked in a traditional recipe called “yiachni” meaning, fried with onions and then tomato juice is added. Finally, plants are sparsely a condiment or the complement of meat stews as occurs with Cynara cardunculus, Cynara cornigera and Gundelia tournefortii.

Preserved plants

A number of plants are gathered and preserved to be stored and consumed all year round. Many plants which are used as a scent are dried and stored in plastic bags, plastic bottles or glass vessels and therefore used all year round. Nine plants (10%) are used to condiment stews, soups, pies or other dishes and traditional recipes. The most popular aromatic plants are Origanum dubium, Mentha spicata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Thymus capitatus, Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, Foeniculum vulgare. These plants add a distinct flavour and aroma to pies as well as to meat stews. Rosmarinus officinalis is used in a traditional fish recipe called savoro.

Some other plants such as Capparis spinosa, Crithmum maritimum, Eryngium creticum, Eryngium glomeratum and Muscari comosum, are preserved in vinegar and eaten like appetizer with several kind of food. Fruits of several wild trees are used for the preparation of jams and marmalades such as Pyrus syriaca, Crataegus azarolus and Crataegus monogyna.

Many tools used in processing were recorded. The five tools more often recorded are: “Madratzi”, a traditional wooden long tool for opening pies, “Chti and Chtocheri”, a traditional copper pot used for pounding, “Chartzi”, a traditional copper pot used for boiling, “Satzi”, a metal hot plate used for cooking pies, “Koumna”, a traditional jar used for storage and “Gastra”, an earthen vessel used for storage.

Conclusion

This study carried out in two sites of Cyprus showed that the habit of using edible wild plants is still alive, but is “ageing”. The consumption of wild plants is done as an addition or a complement to a diet of cultivated food plants. During this ethnobotanical research it was verified that even though wild edibles has been playing an important role in Cyprus since ancient times, it was realized that the transmission of folk uses of plants decreased in the last generations and surely in urban areas the knowledge is very much delimited. Almost all the interviewees, were past retirement age, and agreed that today far fewer wild plants are consumed than in previous decades. The people of the younger generation we met during the field survey declared that “it is much easier and less time and effort consuming to buying greens, fruits or spices from the markets, no matter if they are cultivated or even imported, instead of running to the fields. Since even though, going to the wild it is not easy to recognise the edible plants and in case can identify some of them they are not familiar with the way plants should be processed”. It is obvious that the younger generation has all but lost the TK necessary to identify, gather and process these species, while many middle-aged informants perceive the consumption of non-cultivated vegetables in a negative way, often as a symbol of poverty of the past.

The data of this study agree with those from other authors [30,31,19], and confirm that non cultivated edible plants deserve to be more thoroughly surveyed from an ethnobotanical and economic-botanical viewpoint, as a basis for agricultural, nutritional and other studies which may lead to the use of some new or renewed food plants. When studying wild food plants from this point of view, we must give recognition to the contribution of rural societies to the diversification of the sources of human nutrition and work for the reappraisal of folk knowledge on plants and their uses [32,33,19].

Our study, as well as other studies in a Circum-Mediterranean level [34,35], demonstrated that there is an urgent need for documentation of TK related to the intangible cultural heritage concerning traditional plant uses, and that such a heritage is much more complex that we may think. The ethnobotanical research should be extended to other areas of Cyprus in order not only to preserve the traditional knowledge related to plants but to make it available to future generations as well, showing the way for authenticity, simplicity and revival of that which is genuine.

All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the European Commission-Research Directorate General, for financing this project and the Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus, for the overall support. Thanks are also due to all the informants who contributed to this study with their valuable traditional knowledge. Special thanks are addressed to the scientists Ms Natasa Pappouli as well as to the technical staff of the Agricultural Research Institute for their assistance.

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The Eastern Red Cedar is really a juniper.

In the cobweb recesses of my mind I have two memories of junipers. One was to make a tea to “force out” measles*. The other was how horribly prickly they were when someone shoved you into them.

As for “forcing out” measles that is highly doubtful. Measles make themselves known without having to be prodded to debut by any conifer tea. However junipers do have the potent antiviral compound deoxypodophyllotoxin (DPT) which has been shown to be effective against viruses that cause the flu and herpes. So maybe juniper tea did have some effect on the intensity or duration of the measles.  The DPT is found in berries and the leaves, aka needles. I wonder if it is also in gin which is flavored with juniper.

Southern Cedar, Juniperus silicicola

Common in the eastern United States — officially east of the 100th meridian —  is Juniperus virginiana, top photo,  joo-NIP-er-us ver-jin-ee-AY-nuh. It is also the species most ornamental cultivars are bred from. Unfortunately this particular juniper is call the Eastern Red Cedar. It is not a cedar. It is a Juniper. The Southern Cedar, Juniperus silicicola, left, joo-NIP-er-us sill-liss-sih-KOLE-uh, also is not a cedar being a subspecies of the J. virginiana.   One can use the “berries” of those two “cedars” like juniper berries because they are junipers. The berries, however, are not berries. They are modified cones. Also while the foliage of many junipers can be used the foliage of the J. virginana and the J. silicicola cannot be used. Also to be avoided entirely are J. sabina and J. oxycedrus, both from southern Europe. J. sabina is often planted as an ornamental in the United States. Small junipers used in landscaping might be of European origin and not useable in any way. Make sure of their identification.

J. sabina, often planted in North America as an ornamental, cannot be used either berries or leaves.

Besides medicinal uses, which includes treating diabetes, the berries are employed for flavoring, most notably in gin and the French liqueur Chartreuse. It takes the “berries” two to three years to ripen. Mature but still green berries are used to flavor gin. Mature blue berries are used to flavor game. They are also used to flavor stuffing, marinades and stews. In Europe one cannot make authentic sauerbraten or sauerkraut without juniper berries. In the southern Alps a dark syrup is made from the berries and is traditionally eaten as a dessert with cream or hot milk. (Some berries are as much as 30% sugar.)

As with many herbs used medicinally or as a spice juniper berries should be used sparingly. Think flavoring, not food. They irritate the kidneys and are diuretic. Juniper extracts should be avoided. They may be fatal.  Florida’s Seminole Indians had many medical uses for the Easter Red Cedar. They used it to treat cold symptoms, swollen joints, stiff neck or back, swollen legs, eye diseases, fever, headache, dizziness and diarrhea.

J. communis, the most common juniper in northern climates around the globe.

The bush I was pushed into as a kid and pushed others into was J. communis, left, the most  common juniper in northern latitudes around the world, joo-NIP-er-us koh-MUNE-iss. It’s also the juniper that flavors gin. There are 13 species of Juniper in North America, two in Europe, some say 19 in North America and maybe 60 in the world. Definitely used by native Americans were J. californica, J. communis, J. communis var. montana, J. deppeana [aka J. pachyphlaea] J. horizontalis, J. monosperma, J. occidentalis, J. osterosperma [aka J. utahensis] J. scopulorum,  J. tetragona,  J. virginiana and Juniperus silicicola, the latter often called a variation of J. viriginana.

On the left is the bark of the red cedar (a Juniper) and on the right the bark of a white cedar, a Chamaecyparis thyoides

How the berries were used varied from tribe to tribe and species to species. The Acoma mixed the berries of the J. monosperma with chopped meat, put it into a clean deer stomach, then roasted it all. The Yavapai pulverized the berries of the J. deppeana, soaked them in water, put them in the mouth, sucked all the juice out, then spat out the solid matter. The Cahuilla dried the berries of the J. californica in the sun or ate them fresh. They also ground the berries into flour  and used them to make mush or bread. The Diegueno considered the previous species berries as famine food only. But the Kawaiisu Indians deseeded the same berries, pounded the berries into a meal, moistened, molded the meal into cakes, dried them then ate them. The Paiute took the berries from the J. occidentals and mixed them with mashed deer liver for food. Or, they stored them in a grass-lined holes in the ground for winter use. The Apache boiled the berries of the J. osteosperma and ate them plain. But the Mescalero took J. monosperma berries, roasted them, added water, and made the mixture into a gravy.

Elsewhere the berries of these junipers have been use: J. tetragoan (Mexico) J. bermudiana (Bermuda) J. drupacea (Europe and Middle East) and in Asia J. chinensis, J. conferta, J. recurva and J. rigida.

In some species of juniper young leaves look very different than older leaves.

One confusing element of identifying some junipers is that their juvenile leaves look different than their mature leaves, left. Young leaves of species like  J. virginiana and J. chinensis are pointed, sharp even. Older leaves are overlapping and scale-like. Other junipers have only pointy leaves, hard and sharp. Some have a mixture of the two.

Juniperus comes from the Dead Latin iuniperus. Where that came from is not known but the best linguistic guess is iuncus meaning reed or rush. That might be related to an earlier Egyptian word ganu meaning reed, cane, shrub or bush. Iuniperus does NOT mean young — as in “junior” or evergreen. That is Wikipathetica nonsense. Iuniperus did get translated into Le genevrier in French from whence we get the word “gin.”

Franciscus Sylvius created a medicine we now call gin.

Gin was invented by Dutch physician Franciscus Sylvius, right,  who wanted to make a diuretic medicine. He succeeded. In English the word “gin”  first appeared in print in 1714. It was a very inexpensive alcoholic beverage to produce and became extremely popular. Alexander Pope in 1738 described it as  “A spiritous liquor, the exorbitant use of which had almost destroyed the lowest rank of the People till it was restrained by an act of Parliament.” Actually Parliament passed Gin Acts in the 1730s and 1740s, which caused rioting. Everyone was swilling gin, kids to grannies, causing artist William Hogarth to engrave the print “Gin Lane” in 1751, below left.

Hogarth’s engraving Gin Lane show scenes of drunkeness and various illegal activities whereas his engraving of the same period, Beer Street, show happy, industrious people.

At one point of the 15,000 drinking places in London over half served only gin. More taxes and watering down the gin finally turned the alcoholic tide by the 1760s.  The reason why gin took off was it was cheap, particularly compared to foreign booze that was charged tariffs. But there was also a cultural element. Beer was view positively and gin negatively. Hogarth’s other famous print, “Beer Street” shows positive scenes. The negative connotations of the time are still found in English with disparaging terms such as gin joint and gin mills.

Louisiana’s Cajuns are the descendants of French Canadians that were forcibly driven from Nova Scotia. Longfellows poem, Evangeline, gained cult then cultural status representing the inhumanity of their expulsion.

There’s one more bit of linguistic history regarding the J. virginana. The early French to Canada called it baton rouge, or red stick because the bark and wood have a red tint. When the Acadians were driven out of Nova Scotia and went to Louisiana to be come Cajuns — read Longfellow’s Poem, Evangeline — they found the Southern Cedar and named the capital of Louisiana for it, Baton Rouge.

To reiterate the berries of J. virginana and J. silicicola (Eastern Red Cedar and Southern Cedar) can be used but not the foliage. J. sabina and J. oxycedrus are to be avoided completely, berries and leaves.

This handsom bird should properly be called the Juniper Waxwing.

As for wildlife the Cedar Waxwing likes the “berries” of the Eastern Red Cedar so much it was named after it. The J. virginiana also has one species of butterfly, the Juniper Hairstreak, that always lays it eggs only on the Eastern Red Cedar.

Bags can be made from the bark fiber of the Easter Red Cedar and the Southern Cedar.

* Did you know that measles might be a milder, human form of a fatal disease in animals? Researchers think measles came from distemper and jumped from dog to man about 4,000 years ago. Man befriended dog and dog gave him a disease. I had both kinds of measles when I was a kid, back to back, one right after the other. I was out of school for nearly a month… it was wonderful…